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Understand TCP/IP addressing and subnetting basics
- 12 minutes to read
- 7 contributors
This article is intended as a general introduction to the concepts of Internet Protocol (IP) networks and subnetting. A glossary is included at the end of article.
Applies to: Windows 10 - all editions Original KB number: 164015
When you configure the TCP/IP protocol on a Windows computer, the TCP/IP configuration settings require:
- An IP address
- A subnet mask
- A default gateway
To configure TCP/IP correctly, it's necessary to understand how TCP/IP networks are addressed and divided into networks and subnetworks.
The success of TCP/IP as the network protocol of the Internet is largely because of its ability to connect together networks of different sizes and systems of different types. These networks are arbitrarily defined into three main classes (along with a few others) that have predefined sizes. Each of them can be divided into smaller subnetworks by system administrators. A subnet mask is used to divide an IP address into two parts. One part identifies the host (computer), the other part identifies the network to which it belongs. To better understand how IP addresses and subnet masks work, look at an IP address and see how it's organized.
IP addresses: Networks and hosts
An IP address is a 32-bit number. It uniquely identifies a host (computer or other device, such as a printer or router) on a TCP/IP network.
IP addresses are normally expressed in dotted-decimal format, with four numbers separated by periods, such as 192.168.123.132. To understand how subnet masks are used to distinguish between hosts, networks, and subnetworks, examine an IP address in binary notation.
For example, the dotted-decimal IP address 192.168.123.132 is (in binary notation) the 32-bit number 11000000101010000111101110000100. This number may be hard to make sense of, so divide it into four parts of eight binary digits.
These 8-bit sections are known as octets. The example IP address, then, becomes 11000000.10101000.01111011.10000100. This number only makes a little more sense, so for most uses, convert the binary address into dotted-decimal format (192.168.123.132). The decimal numbers separated by periods are the octets converted from binary to decimal notation.
For a TCP/IP wide area network (WAN) to work efficiently as a collection of networks, the routers that pass packets of data between networks don't know the exact location of a host for which a packet of information is destined. Routers only know what network the host is a member of and use information stored in their route table to determine how to get the packet to the destination host's network. After the packet is delivered to the destination's network, the packet is delivered to the appropriate host.
For this process to work, an IP address has two parts. The first part of an IP address is used as a network address, the last part as a host address. If you take the example 192.168.123.132 and divide it into these two parts, you get 192.168.123. Network .132 Host or 192.168.123.0 - network address. 0.0.0.132 - host address.
Subnet mask
The second item, which is required for TCP/IP to work, is the subnet mask. The subnet mask is used by the TCP/IP protocol to determine whether a host is on the local subnet or on a remote network.
In TCP/IP, the parts of the IP address that are used as the network and host addresses aren't fixed. Unless you have more information, the network and host addresses above can't be determined. This information is supplied in another 32-bit number called a subnet mask. The subnet mask is 255.255.255.0 in this example. It isn't obvious what this number means unless you know 255 in binary notation equals 11111111. So, the subnet mask is 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000.
Lining up the IP address and the subnet mask together, the network, and host portions of the address can be separated:
11000000.10101000.01111011.10000100 - IP address (192.168.123.132) 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 - Subnet mask (255.255.255.0)
The first 24 bits (the number of ones in the subnet mask) are identified as the network address. The last 8 bits (the number of remaining zeros in the subnet mask) are identified as the host address. It gives you the following addresses:
11000000.10101000.01111011.00000000 - Network address (192.168.123.0) 00000000.00000000.00000000.10000100 - Host address (000.000.000.132)
So now you know, for this example using a 255.255.255.0 subnet mask, that the network ID is 192.168.123.0, and the host address is 0.0.0.132. When a packet arrives on the 192.168.123.0 subnet (from the local subnet or a remote network), and it has a destination address of 192.168.123.132, your computer will receive it from the network and process it.
Almost all decimal subnet masks convert to binary numbers that are all ones on the left and all zeros on the right. Some other common subnet masks are:
Internet RFC 1878 (available from InterNIC-Public Information Regarding Internet Domain Name Registration Services ) describes the valid subnets and subnet masks that can be used on TCP/IP networks.
Network classes
Internet addresses are allocated by the InterNIC , the organization that administers the Internet. These IP addresses are divided into classes. The most common of them are classes A, B, and C. Classes D and E exist, but aren't used by end users. Each of the address classes has a different default subnet mask. You can identify the class of an IP address by looking at its first octet. Following are the ranges of Class A, B, and C Internet addresses, each with an example address:
Class A networks use a default subnet mask of 255.0.0.0 and have 0-127 as their first octet. The address 10.52.36.11 is a class A address. Its first octet is 10, which is between 1 and 126, inclusive.
Class B networks use a default subnet mask of 255.255.0.0 and have 128-191 as their first octet. The address 172.16.52.63 is a class B address. Its first octet is 172, which is between 128 and 191, inclusive.
Class C networks use a default subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 and have 192-223 as their first octet. The address 192.168.123.132 is a class C address. Its first octet is 192, which is between 192 and 223, inclusive.
In some scenarios, the default subnet mask values don't fit the organization needs for one of the following reasons:
- The physical topology of the network
- The numbers of networks (or hosts) don't fit within the default subnet mask restrictions.
The next section explains how networks can be divided using subnet masks.
A Class A, B, or C TCP/IP network can be further divided, or subnetted, by a system administrator. It becomes necessary as you reconcile the logical address scheme of the Internet (the abstract world of IP addresses and subnets) with the physical networks in use by the real world.
A system administrator who is allocated a block of IP addresses may be administering networks that aren't organized in a way that easily fits these addresses. For example, you have a wide area network with 150 hosts on three networks (in different cities) that are connected by a TCP/IP router. Each of these three networks has 50 hosts. You are allocated the class C network 192.168.123.0. (For illustration, this address is actually from a range that isn't allocated on the Internet.) It means that you can use the addresses 192.168.123.1 to 192.168.123.254 for your 150 hosts.
Two addresses that can't be used in your example are 192.168.123.0 and 192.168.123.255 because binary addresses with a host portion of all ones and all zeros are invalid. The zero address is invalid because it's used to specify a network without specifying a host. The 255 address (in binary notation, a host address of all ones) is used to broadcast a message to every host on a network. Just remember that the first and last address in any network or subnet can't be assigned to any individual host.
You should now be able to give IP addresses to 254 hosts. It works fine if all 150 computers are on a single network. However, your 150 computers are on three separate physical networks. Instead of requesting more address blocks for each network, you divide your network into subnets that enable you to use one block of addresses on multiple physical networks.
In this case, you divide your network into four subnets by using a subnet mask that makes the network address larger and the possible range of host addresses smaller. In other words, you are 'borrowing' some of the bits used for the host address, and using them for the network portion of the address. The subnet mask 255.255.255.192 gives you four networks of 62 hosts each. It works because in binary notation, 255.255.255.192 is the same as 1111111.11111111.1111111.11000000. The first two digits of the last octet become network addresses, so you get the additional networks 00000000 (0), 01000000 (64), 10000000 (128) and 11000000 (192). (Some administrators will only use two of the subnetworks using 255.255.255.192 as a subnet mask. For more information on this topic, see RFC 1878.) In these four networks, the last six binary digits can be used for host addresses.
Using a subnet mask of 255.255.255.192, your 192.168.123.0 network then becomes the four networks 192.168.123.0, 192.168.123.64, 192.168.123.128 and 192.168.123.192. These four networks would have as valid host addresses:
192.168.123.1-62 192.168.123.65-126 192.168.123.129-190 192.168.123.193-254
Remember, again, that binary host addresses with all ones or all zeros are invalid, so you can't use addresses with the last octet of 0, 63, 64, 127, 128, 191, 192, or 255.
You can see how it works by looking at two host addresses, 192.168.123.71 and 192.168.123.133. If you used the default Class C subnet mask of 255.255.255.0, both addresses are on the 192.168.123.0 network. However, if you use the subnet mask of 255.255.255.192, they are on different networks; 192.168.123.71 is on the 192.168.123.64 network, 192.168.123.133 is on the 192.168.123.128 network.
Default gateways
If a TCP/IP computer needs to communicate with a host on another network, it will usually communicate through a device called a router. In TCP/IP terms, a router that is specified on a host, which links the host's subnet to other networks, is called a default gateway. This section explains how TCP/IP determines whether or not to send packets to its default gateway to reach another computer or device on the network.
When a host attempts to communicate with another device using TCP/IP, it performs a comparison process using the defined subnet mask and the destination IP address versus the subnet mask and its own IP address. The result of this comparison tells the computer whether the destination is a local host or a remote host.
If the result of this process determines the destination to be a local host, then the computer will send the packet on the local subnet. If the result of the comparison determines the destination to be a remote host, then the computer will forward the packet to the default gateway defined in its TCP/IP properties. It's then the responsibility of the router to forward the packet to the correct subnet.
Troubleshooting
TCP/IP network problems are often caused by incorrect configuration of the three main entries in a computer's TCP/IP properties. By understanding how errors in TCP/IP configuration affect network operations, you can solve many common TCP/IP problems.
Incorrect Subnet Mask: If a network uses a subnet mask other than the default mask for its address class, and a client is still configured with the default subnet mask for the address class, communication will fail to some nearby networks but not to distant ones. As an example, if you create four subnets (such as in the subnetting example) but use the incorrect subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 in your TCP/IP configuration, hosts won't be able to determine that some computers are on different subnets than their own. In this situation, packets destined for hosts on different physical networks that are part of the same Class C address won't be sent to a default gateway for delivery. A common symptom of this issue is when a computer can communicate with hosts that are on its local network and can talk to all remote networks except those networks that are nearby and have the same class A, B, or C address. To fix this problem, just enter the correct subnet mask in the TCP/IP configuration for that host.
Incorrect IP Address: If you put computers with IP addresses that should be on separate subnets on a local network with each other, they won't be able to communicate. They'll try to send packets to each other through a router that can't forward them correctly. A symptom of this problem is a computer that can talk to hosts on remote networks, but can't communicate with some or all computers on their local network. To correct this problem, make sure all computers on the same physical network have IP addresses on the same IP subnet. If you run out of IP addresses on a single network segment, there are solutions that go beyond the scope of this article.
Incorrect Default Gateway: A computer configured with an incorrect default gateway can communicate with hosts on its own network segment. But it will fail to communicate with hosts on some or all remote networks. A host can communicate with some remote networks but not others if the following conditions are true:
- A single physical network has more than one router.
- The wrong router is configured as a default gateway.
This problem is common if an organization has a router to an internal TCP/IP network and another router connected to the Internet.
Two popular references on TCP/IP are:
- "TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 1: The Protocols," Richard Stevens, Addison Wesley, 1994
- "Internetworking with TCP/IP, Volume 1: Principles, Protocols, and Architecture," Douglas E. Comer, Prentice Hall, 1995
It is recommended that a system administrator responsible for TCP/IP networks have at least one of these references available.
Broadcast address--An IP address with a host portion that is all ones.
Host--A computer or other device on a TCP/IP network.
Internet--The global collection of networks that are connected together and share a common range of IP addresses.
InterNIC--The organization responsible for administration of IP addresses on the Internet.
IP--The network protocol used for sending network packets over a TCP/IP network or the Internet.
IP Address--A unique 32-bit address for a host on a TCP/IP network or internetwork.
Network--There are two uses of the term network in this article. One is a group of computers on a single physical network segment. The other is an IP network address range that is allocated by a system administrator.
Network address--An IP address with a host portion that is all zeros.
Octet--An 8-bit number, 4 of which comprise a 32-bit IP address. They have a range of 00000000-11111111 that correspond to the decimal values 0-255.
Packet--A unit of data passed over a TCP/IP network or wide area network.
RFC (Request for Comment)--A document used to define standards on the Internet.
Router--A device that passes network traffic between different IP networks.
Subnet Mask--A 32-bit number used to distinguish the network and host portions of an IP address.
Subnet or Subnetwork--A smaller network created by dividing a larger network into equal parts.
TCP/IP--Used broadly, the set of protocols, standards, and utilities commonly used on the Internet and large networks.
Wide area network (WAN)--A large network that is a collection of smaller networks separated by routers. The Internet is an example of a large WAN.
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- 1. . BY Mustafa Salam Hayder Ayad Dawood Ali Adil Saeid
- 2. The Internet Protocol (IP) The Internet Protocol is the corner-stone of the TCP/IP architecture. All computers in the Internet understand IP. The main tasks of IP are: The addressing of the computers, and the fragmentation of packets. There are two types of Internet Protocol: Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4): currently used version of Internet Protocol. Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6): the upcoming replacement for IPv4. It contains some major improvements and new features.
- 3. IPv4 Address: An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and universally defines the connection of a device (for example, a computer or a router) to the Internet. • Connectionless protocol • Fragments (divides) packets where necessary • Addressing via 32 bit Internet addresses However, it contains no functions for end-to-end message reliability or flow control. IP makes the ‘best effort’ to forward packets to the next destination, but does not guarantee delivery because it is connectionless.
- 4. Cont… The IP address can be classify into two classes: Public address: This address considered as any valid address assigned to any user, and the organization who is responsible for registering IP ranges called Internet Service Providers (ISPs), and this address will be unique. Private Address: Any number or address assigned to a device on a private TCP/IP Local Area Network that is accessible only within the Local Area Network.
- 5. Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) SIPP (Simple Internet Protocol Plus) • Maintains good features of IPv4, discards bad ones. • Not compatible with IPv4 • Compatible with all other Internet protocols including TCP, UDP, ICMP, DNS, etc. • Main features: – Long addresses (128 bits) ⇒ supports billions of hosts. – Simplified, fixed size header ⇒ routers can process packets faster. – Support for authentication and privacy – Better support for type of service.
- 6. Internet addresses Each network interface connected to the Internet has a unique address consisting of two parts: Network address, address of the network within the Internet (used by gateways for routing IP packets between networks). Host address, address of the computer within the network (used for delivering packets to a particular network interface within the network).
- 7. Internet address format The 32-bit IP address is separated into four 8-bit octets, allowing each octet to have a value ranging from 0 to 255. Furthermore, the IP address is logically separated into two distinct components: the network ID and the host ID. The network ID is used to identify the subnet upon which the host resides. The host ID is used to identify the host itself within the given subnet. IP addresses can be displayed in three typical formats: Binary notation Binary notation is the format that systems on the network use to process the address. An example of binary notation is 11000000.10101000.00000001.01100100. Hexadecimal notation Hexadecimal notation is the format typically used when identifying IPv6 addresses. An example of hexadecimal notation of an IPv4 address is C0.A8.01.64
- 8. Cont… Dotted-decimal notation Dotted-decimal notation is the format that is typically used for displaying the IP address in a human-readable format. An example of dotted-decimal notation is 192.168.1.100 Figure 3: Structure of IP Address
- 9. Classes of IP addresses Different networks have different sizes. Basically, there are many small networks and few large networks. To provide efficient use of 32-bit address space, IPv4 defined several address classes and associated address formats: Class A: allows 128 networks, 16 million hosts each. The IP address start from 1.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255, and the mask address is 255.0.0.0 Class B: allows 16,382 networks, 65,534 hosts each. The IP address start from 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255, and the mask address is 255.255.0.0
- 10. Classes of IP addresses Class C: allows 2 million networks, 254 hosts each. The IP address start from 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255, and the mask address is 255.255.255.0 Class D: multicast networks The IP address start from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255. Class E: reserved for future use. From 240 to 255 and the 255.255.255.255 used for broadcast to all the subnet.
- 11. Cont.. One of the benefits of classful addresses is that they provide a hierarchy to the network through the use of the network ID. This translates into an efficient routing environment because it is easy for a router to determine what networks can be grouped together and treated as a single routing entry.
- 12. Strategies to Conserve Addresses Several strategies have been developed and implemented to help the Internet community on how provides a good managing of IP addresses. These strategies help reduce the load on Internet routers and help administrators use globally unique IP addresses more efficiently. There are two common strategies, which are: Private Addressing Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR)
- 13. Private Address It means If the internetwork is limited to one organization, the IP addresses need only be unique within that organization. Only networks that interface with public networks such as the Internet need public addresses. Using public addresses on the outside and private addresses for inside networks is very effective. Private Addresses:RFC1918 designates three ranges of IP addresses as private: 10.0.0.0 through 10.255.255.255 172.16.0.0 through 172.31.255.255 192.168.0.0 through 192.168.255.255
- 15. Cont... There are two ways to convert the private address to public address: Network Address Translation (NAT). This technique has been used to convert the private address to public address, the NAT allowing us to access the internet and get services. The basic idea, is that technique used pool of public addresses and assign for each private address one public address. Thus, this way is inefficient due to the fact that there are cost and delay associated with this operation. The table and the figure below show how the NAT make the mapping. 1. Private Address 192.68.5.1 192.68.5.2 192.68.5.3 Public Address 200.1.1.2 200.1.1.3 200.1.1.3
- 16. Cont.. 2. Port Address Translation (PAT). It’s another technique used to convert the private address to public. During PAT, each computer on LAN is translated to the same IP address (public), but with a different port number assignment. This way is much better than the NAT because we can use one public address to translate any private address, therefore we saved the cost. The table below shows the process of the PAT Private Address Port address Public Address Port Number 192.68.1.3 50133 200.0.1.2 1 192.68.1.5 63887 200.0.1.2 2 The port address will be any random number in the allowed range, that the device created it when wants to access the internet. The packet will contain the port number that assign to the device that wants to access the internet and through this port number, the router when get the response message will translate it and make map this message to it is private address based on the port number.
- 17. Addressing without Subnets If we have a class B with a Flat Network, the number of host will be more than 216=65536 hosts, So the problem is here, that managing this network with this number of host is too tricky and the performance of this network will get down because of the heavy load. In other word, any single broadcast can slowdown the network. Therefore, the solution is the subnetting. Subnetting means divide or separate the single network into multiple networks that can reduce the loading from one network. The advantage of using subnetting is:1. Reduce the traffic and the increase the performance. 2. The smaller network can easier to manage.
- 18. Subnetting As the number of distinct local networks grows, managing them become a serious headache. Every time a new network is installed the system administrator must contact NIC to get a new network number. The solution to the problem is to allow a network to be split into several independent parts for internal use but still act like a single network to the outside world. In the internet literature these parts are called subnets.
- 19. Subnet masks: A mask is a 32-bit binary number that is expressed in dotted decimal notation. By default, a mask contains two fields, host field. These correspond to the network administered part of the network address. subnets, they are adjusting the way they view Default masks for classful addressing the network field and the number and the locally When an administrator the IP address. Table 1:
- 20. Cont… Routers and hosts still assume class subnet masks by default: Class A Class B Class C /8 /16 /24 255.0.0.0 255.255.0.0 255.255.255.0 The figure below gives an example to class C mask address: The first three octets represent the network part and the last octet represent the host part.
- 21. Cont... There three important things that should be taken into our account when we thinking about subnetting:1. Network address – the first one 2. Broadcast address – the last one 3. Host addresses – everything in between As well as, to find the number of hosts per subnet. We can use formal 2x -2, where (x) is the number of unmasked bits (0’s) .
- 22. Cont...
- 23. Reserved and Restricted Addresses In any subnet, there are certain addresses that cannot be assigned to an individual device because they have a special purpose. The subnet address is the first address in a range that identifies the subnet. The broadcast address is the last address in the range, and all hosts on the subnet receive traffic if anything is sent to it. Assume that a subnet address is 172.31.9.0 with a mask of 255.255.255.0. The subnet address is 172.31.9.0, and the broadcast address is 172.31.9.255.
- 24. Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) Classless Inter Domain Routing (CIDR) is a method for assigning IP addresses without using the standard IP address classes like Class A, Class B or Class C. In CIDR , an IP address is represented as A.B.C.D /n, where "/n" is called the IP prefix or network prefix. The IP prefix identifies the number of significant bits used to identify a network. Example, 192.9.205.22 /18 means, the first 18 bits are used to represent the network and the remaining 14 bits are used to identify hosts.
- 25. It’s basically the method that ISPs (Internet Service Providers) use to allocate an amount of addresses to a company, a home—a customer. They provide addresses in a certain block size When you receive a block of addresses from an ISP, what you get will look something like this: 192.168.10.32/28. This is telling you what your subnet mask is. The slash notation (/) means how many bits are turned on (1s). The Class A default subnet mask, which is 255.0.0.0. This means that the first byte of the subnet mask is all ones (1s), or 11111111. When referring to a slash notation, you need to count all the 1s bits to figure out your mask. The 255.0.0.0 is considered a /8 because it has 8 bits that are 1s—that is, 8 bits that are turned on
- 26. Subnetting Class C Addresses In a Class C address, only 8 bits are available for defining the hosts that subnet bits start at the left and go to the right without skipping bits. This means that the only Class C subnet masks can be the following: The Fast Way Method: Subnetting a Class C Address start by using the second subnet mask available with a Class C address, which borrows 2 bits for subnetting 192 = 11000000 The 1s represent the subnet bits, and the 0’s represent the host bits available in each subnet. 192 provides 2 bits for subnetting and 6 bits for defining the hosts in each subnet.
- 27. Subnetting Class B Addresses Class B subnet masks first. Notice that we have a lot more possible subnet masks than we do with a Class C network We know the Class B network address has 16 bits available for host addressing. This means we can use up to 14 bits for subnetting (because we have to leave at least 2 bits for host addressing). The process of subnetting a Class B network is pretty much the same as it is for a Class C, except that you just have more host bits. Use the same subnet numbers for the third octet with Class B that you used for the fourth octet with Class C, but add a zero to the network portion
- 28. Example 255.255.192.0 (/18) 172.16.0.0 = Network address 255.255.192.0 = Subnet mask
- 29. Subnetting Class A Addresses Class A subnetting is not performed any differently from Classes B and C, but there are 24 bits to play with instead of the 16 in a Class B address and the 8 in a Class C address. Let’s start by listing all the Class A subnets. You must leave at least 2 bits for defining hosts. And I hope you can see the pattern by now. Remember, we’re going to do this the same way as a Class B or C subnet.
- 30. Address Blocks To overcome address depletion and give more organizations access to the Internet, classless addressing was designed and implemented. In this scheme, there are no classes, but the addresses are still granted in blocks In classless addressing, when an entity, small or large, needs to be connected to the Internet, it is granted a block (range) of addresses. The size of the block (the number of addresses) varies based on the nature and size of the entity. For example, a household may be given only two addresses; a large organization may be given thousands of addresses. An ISP, as the Internet service provider, may be given thousands or hundreds of thousands based on the number of customers it may serve The addresses in a block must be contiguous, one after another The number of addresses in a block must be a power of 2 (2,4,8..) The first address must be evenly divisible by the number of addresses
- 31. Cont… We can see that the restrictions are applied to this block. The addresses are contiguous. The number 2 of addresses is a power of 4 =16, and the first address is divisible by 16. The first address, when converted to a decimal number, is 3,440,387,360, which when divided by 16 results in 215,024,210
- 32. To convert a binary number to decimal, we use the weights .We multiply each symbol byits weight and add all the weighted results. Figure bellow show how we can change binary 1001110to its decimalequivalent78.
- 33. Mask and Address Blocks • In IPv4 addressing, a block of addresses can be defined as x.y.z.t /n in which x.y.z.t defines one of the addresses and the /n defines the mask. • The first address in the block can be found by setting the rightmost 32 − n bits to 0s • The last address in the block can be found by setting the rightmost 32 − n bits to 1s • The number of addresses in the block can be found by using the formula 232−n
- 34. Mask and Address Blocks • Example: 205.16.37.39/28 – The binary representation is 1100110 00010000 00100101 00100111 – If we set 32 − 28 rightmost bits to 0, we get 11001101 00010000 00100101 00100000 205.16.37.32 (First address) – If we set 32 − 28 rightmost bits to 1, we get 11001101 00010000 00100101 00101111 205.16.37.47 (Last address) – The value of n is 28, which means that number of addresses is 232−28 or 16
- 35. Cont… Another way to find the first address, the last address, and the number of addresses is to represent the mask as a 32-bit binary (or 8-digit hexadecimal) number. This is particularly useful when we are writing a program to find these pieces of information. Example 205.16.37.39/28 can be represented as 11111111 11111111 11111111 11110000 (twenty-eight 1’s and four 0’s). Find a. The first address b. The last address c. The number of addresses
- 37. Network Addresses A very important concept in IP addressing is the network address. When an organization is given a block of addresses, the organization is free to allocate the addresses to the devices that need to be connected to the Internet. The first address in the class, however, is normally (not always) treated as a special address. The first address is called the network address and defines the organization network. It defines the organization itself to the rest of the world. As well as, we will see that the first address is the one that is used by routers to direct the message sent to the organization from the outside the organization network is connected to the Internet via a router. The router has two addresses. One belongs to the granted block; the other belongs to the network that is at the other side of the router. We call the second address x.y.z.t/n because we do not know anything about the network it is connected to at the other side. All messages destined for addresses in the organization block (205.16.37.32 to 205.16.37.47) are sent, directly or indirectly, to x.y.z.t/n. We say directly or indirectly because we do not know the structure of the network to which the other side of the router is connected
- 38. Two-Level Hierarchy: No Subnetting An IP address can define only two levels of hierarchy when not subnetted. The n left- most bits of the address x.y.z.tJn define the network (organization network); the 32 - n Rightmost bits define the particular host (computer or router) to the network. The two common terms are prefix and suffix. The part of the address that defines the network is called the prefix
- 39. Three-Levels of Hierarchy: Subnetting An organization that is granted a large block of addresses may want to create clusters of networks (called subnets) and divide the addresses between the different subnets. The rest of the world still sees the organization as one entity. However, internally there are several subnets. All messages are sent to the router address that connects the organization to the rest of the Internet; the router routes the message to the appropriate subnets. The organization, however, needs to create small sub-blocks of addresses, each assigned to specific subnets. The organization has its own mask; each subnet must also has its own
- 40. Example 4 An organization has purchased the Class C Address 216.21.5.0 and would like to use it to address the following 5 networks.
- 42. Cont… Third: Use increment to find the network ranges. No. Subnet address First valid address Last valid Address Broadcast address 1 216.21.5.0 216.21.5.1 216.21.5.30 216.21.5.31 2 216.21.5.32 216.21.5.33 216.21.5.62 216.21.5.63 3 216.21.5.64 216.21.5.65 216.21.5.94 216.21.5.95 4 216.21.5.96 216.21.5.97 216.21.5.126 216.21.5.127 5 216.21.5.128 216.21.5.129 216.21.5.158 216.21.5.159 6 216.21.5.160 216.21.5.161 216.21.5.190 216.21.5.191 7 216.21.5.192 216.21.5.193 216.21.5.222 216.21.5.223 8 216.21.5.224 216.21.5.225 216.21.5.254 216.21.5.255
- 43. Cont… 216.21.5.33--62 216.21.5.1--30 216.21.5.129--158 216.21.5.97--126 216.21.5.65--94
- 44. Example 5
- 45. Example 6
- 46. Example 7
- 48. Number of granted address : 65,534 Number of allocated address : 40,960 Number of available address : 24,574
- 49. Example 8 An organization has purchased the Class C Address 195.5.20.0 and would to create networks of 50 hosts each.
- 50. Cont.. Third: Use increment to find the network ranges. No Subnet First valid address Last valid address Broadcast Address 1 195.5.20.0 195.5.20.1 195.5.20.62 195.5.20.63 2 195.5.20.64 195.5.20.65 195.5.20.126 195.5.20.127 3 195.5.20.128 195.5.20.129 195.5.20.190 195.5.20.191 4 195.5.20.192 195.5.20.193 195.5.20.254 195.5.20.255
- 51. Example 9 Example: An organization has purchased the Class A Address 10.0.0.0 and would to create networks of 100 hosts each.
- 52. Cont… No Subnet First valid address Last valid address Broadcast Address 1 10.0.0.0 10.0.0.1 10.0.0.126 10.0.0.127 2 10.0.0.128 10.0.0.129 10.0.0.254 10.0.0.255 3 10.0.1.0 10.0.1.1 10.0.1.126 10.0.1.127 4 10.0.1.128 10.0.1.129 10.0.1.254 10.0.1.255 …. ……. ….. ……. ….. …. …… …… ……. ….. ….. ….. ….. ……. …..
- 53. Thank you for your attention
Editor's Notes
- 82 …. 01010010………..1110000064……01000000
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Electronics Post
Ip addressing and subnetting.
You shall be learning all about IP addressing and subnetting in this tutorial.
Although you may be thinking that addressing must be a straightforward topic , hopefully by the end of this tutorial you’ll be convinced that internet addressing is not only a juicy, subtle, and interesting topic but also one that is of central importance to the internet.
Before discussing IP addressing, however, we’ll need to say a few words about how hosts and routers are connected into the network.
A host typically has only a single link into the network; when the IP in the host wants to send a datagram, it does so over this link. The boundary between the host and the physical link is called an interface . Now consider a router and its interfaces. Because a router’s job is to receive a datagram on one link and forward the datagram on some other link, a router necessarily has two or more links to which it is connected. The boundary between the router and any one of its links is also called an interface.
A router thus has multiple interfaces, one for each of its links. Because every host and router is capable of sending and receiving IP datagrams, IP requires each host and router interface to have its own IP address. Thus, an IP address is technically associated with an interface, rather than with the host or router containing that interface.
Each IP address is 32 bits long (equivalently, 4 bytes), and there are thus a total of 2 32 possible IP addresses. By approximating 2 10 by 10 3 , it is easy to see that there are about 4 billion possible IP addresses. These addresses are typically written in so-called dotted-decimal notation , in which each byte of the address is written in its decimal form and is separated by a period (dot) from other bytes in the address.
For example, consider the IP address 193.32.216.9. The 193 is the decimal equivalent of the first 8 digits of the address; the 32 is the decimal equivalent of the second 8 bits of the address, and so on. Thus, the address 193.32.216.9 in binary notation is :
11000001 00100000 11011000 00001001
Each interface on every host and router in the global internet must have an IP address that is globally unique (except for interfaces behind NATs). These addresses cannot be chosen in a willy-nilly manner, however. A portion of an interface’s IP address will be determined by the subnet to which it is connected.
The figure below provides an example of IP addressing and interfaces.
In this figure, one router (with three interfaces) is used to interconnect seven hosts. Take a closer look at the IP address assigned to the host and router interfaces, as there are several things to notice.
The three hosts in the upper-left portion of the above figure, and the router interface to which they are connected, all have an IP address of the form 223.1.1.xxx. That is, they all have the same leftmost 24 bits in their IP address. The four interfaces are also interconnected to each other by a network that contains no routers. This network could be interconnected by an Ethernet LAN, in which case the interfaces would be interconnected by an Ethernet switch, or by a wireless access point. We’ll represent this routerless network connecting these hosts as a cloud for now.
In IP terms, this network interconnecting three host interfaces and one router interface forms a subnet [RFC 950]. (A subnet is also called an IP network or simply a network in the internet literature). IP addressing assigns an address to this subnet: 223.1.1.0/24, where the /24 notation, sometimes known as a subnet mask, indicates that the leftmost 24 bits of the 32 bit quantity define the subnet address.
The subnet 223.1.1.0/24 thus consists of the three host interfaces (223.1.1.1, and 223.1.1.2, and 223.1.1.3) and one router interface (223.1.1.4). Any additional hosts attached to the 223.1.1.0/24 subnet would be required to have an address of the form 223.1.xxx. There are two additional subnets shown in the figure above :the 223.1.2.0/24network and the 223.1.3.0/24subnet. The figure below illustrates the three IP subnets:
The IP definition of a subnet is not restricted to Ethernet segments that connect multiple hosts to a router interface. To get some insight here, consider the figure below (4.17), which shows three routers that are interconnected, one for each point-to-point link and one for the broadcast link that directly connects the router to a pair of hosts.
What subnets are present here? Note that there are three additional subnets in this example as well: one subnet, 223.1.9.0/24, for the interface that connect routers R1 and R2; another subnet, 223.1.8.0/24, for the interfaces that connect routers R2 and R3; and a third subnet, 223.1.7.0/24, for the interfaces that connect routers R3 and R1. For a general interconnected system of routers and hosts, we can use the following recipe to define the subnets in the system:
To determine the subnets, detach each interface from its host or router, creating islands of isolated networks, with interfaces terminating the end points of the isolated networks. Each of these isolated networks is called a subnet .
If we apply this procedure to the interconnected system in the above figure, we get six islands of subnets.
From the discussion above, it’s clear that an organization (such as a company or academic institution) with multiple Ethernet segments and point-to-point links will have multiple subnets, with all of the devices on a given subnet having the same subnet address.
In principle, the different subnets could have quite different subnet address. In practice, however, their subnet addresses often have much in common. To understand why, let’s turn our attention to how addressing is handled in the global internet.
The internet’s address assignment strategy is known as Classless Interdomain Routing (CIDR – pronounced cider ) [RFC 4632]. CIDR generalizes the notion of subnet addressing. CIDR generalizes the notion of subnet addressing. As with subnet addressing, the 32-bit IP address is divided into two parts and again has the dotted-decimal form a.d.c.d/x , where x indicates the number of bits in the first part of the address.
The x most significant bits of an address of the form a.b.c.d/x constitute the network portion of the IP address, and are often referred to as the prefix (or network prefix ) of the address.
An organization is typically assigned a block of contiguous addresses, that is, a range of addresses with a common prefix. In this case, the IP addresses of devices within the organization will share the common prefix. Only these x leading prefix bits are considered by routers outside the organization’s network.
That is, when a router outside the organization forwards a datagram whose destination address is inside the organization, only the leading x bits of the address need to be considered. This considerably reduces the size of the forwarding table in these routers, since a single entry of the form a.b.c.d/x will be sufficient to forward packets to any destination within the organization.
The remaining 32-x bits of an address can be thought of as distinguishing the devices within the organization, all of which have the same network prefix. These are bits that will be considered when forwarding packets at routers within the organization.
These lower-order bits may (or may not) have an additional subnetting structure, such as that discussed above. For example, suppose the first 21 bits of the CIDRized address a.b.c.d/21 specify the organization’s network prefix and are common to the IP address of all devices in that organization. The organization’s internal structure might be such that these 11 rightmost bits are used for subnetting within the organization, as discussed above. For example, a.b.c.d/24 might refer to a specific subnet within the organization.
Before CIDR was adopted, the network portions of an IP address were constrained to be 8,16, or 24 bits in length, and an addressing scheme known as classful addressing , since subnets with 8-, 16- , and 24-bit subnet addresses were known as class A, B and C networks, respectively.
The requirement that the subnet portion of an IP address be exactly 1,2, or 3 bytes long turned out to be problematic for supporting the rapidly growing number of organizations with small and medium-sized subnets. A class C(/24) subnet could accommodate only up to 2 8 -2 = 254 hosts (two of the 2 8 =256 addresses are reserved for special use)- too small for many organizations. However, a class B(/16) subnet, which supports upto 65,634hosts, was too large. Under classful addressing, an organization with, say 2,000 hosts was typically allotted a class B(/16) subnet address. This led to a rapid depletion of the class B address space and poor utilization of the assigned address space. For example, the organization that used a class B address for its 2,000 hosts was allocated enough of the address space for up to 65,534 interfaces – leaving more than 63,000 addresses that could not be used by other organizations.
We would be remiss if we did not mentions yet another type of IP address, the IP broadcast address 255.255.255.255. When a host sends a datagram with destination address 255.255.255.255, the message is delivered to all hosts on the same subnet. Routers optionally forward the message into neighbouring subnets as well (although they usually don’t).
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- Networking 101 - IP Addressing
What is IP Addressing?
You may wish to send a message to everyone on the network, in the same way you may wish to send a circular to multiple recipients, but you are also likely to want to send messages to a specific recipient. That's where addressing comes in. In IP networking this comes in the form of an IP address.
What is an IP address? You will no doubt have seen IP addresses many times. They look like this: 10.2.3.4 . So what does that represent? It actually represents four 8 bit numbers ranging from 0 (binary 00000000) to 255 (binary 11111111). This means a range of binary numbers like so:
Click here for a brief introduction to binary
This results in a total of 4,294,967,296 IP addresses. Each address in an IP network must be unique. It is like a phone number and identifies a node on a given network.
What is a Subnet?
You may have come across the term "subnet". Subnets are subnetworks, meaning a network divided into multiple smaller networks. Subnets can be used to separate networks logically for different purposes such as business functions like Accounts Network, Sales Network etc. They can also be divided for security and access purposes as well as many other reasons. One of the key components for dividing and identifying subnets is the "subnet mask" or "netmask".
What is subnet mask
This may sound complicated and because of the way it is often explained with bitwise operations and binary from the start, it can seem confusing. I am going to attempt to explain the concept in a slightly different way and then explain the mechanics and notation. If we think about what we are trying to achieve more simply, all we want to do is take a network with x addresses and divide it into multiple smaller networks. Let's say we have a network consisting of only 8 addresses numbered 1 - 8. If we wanted to split this in half, we would have 2 networks of 4 addresses, the first {1, 2, 3, 4} and the second {5, 6, 7, 8} and that's fine for this very simple network and its two subnetworks. We can see fairly clearly which addresses belong to which group. But, what if we were to make this number much larger and try to subdivide it into many more networks? What if the networks weren't evenly divided? How would you identify which address belonged to which network or subnetwork? Without looking at all the addresses, how would you know where one starts and ends?
Enter the subnet mask. I am going to start the explanation of this somewhat backwards to a lot of other documentation with "CIDR notation". CIDR or Classless Inter-Domain Routing is a notation and method for dividing and allocating IP address ranges and subnets. An IP address in CIDR notation looks like this: 10.0.0.0/24 with the CIDR part being the /24 . So what does that mean? Well it represents the 256 addresses 10.0.0.0 - 10.0.0.255 . So what about the following 10.0.0.1/24 ? Well that would represent 10.0.0.1 - 10.0.1.0 right? Wrong. The range remains the same: 10.0.0.0 - 10.0.0.255 . The difference now is that we are noting a specific host address ( 10.0.0.1 ) within that range. Confused? Right, let's break it down.
What is CIDR notation
CIDR notation allows for all 4,294,967,296 addresses to be broken down into subnet sizes of powers of 2. I.e. 2^0 = 1, 2^1 = 2, 2^2 = 4 and so on. Therefore you can't have a network with 3 addresses for example. It also somewhat prevents overlaps within evenly divided networks, so if you took the entire available range of IP addresses you could divide it into 16,777,216 /24 subnets (4,294,967,296 / 256). Going back to our example of 10.0.0.0/24 the next available /24 would be 10.0.1.0/24 . If we make a table, you will see a pattern:
Each time we are incrementing the third group of numbers separated by dots by 1. This means that each range will look as follows: X.X.X.0 - X.X.X.256 where X.X.X. remains fixed for that range. So what we are saying is that the X.X.X. prefix represents the range of addresses for that subnet and the final group of numbers represents individual addresses in that range. You could also look at it like this:
Here we see that we are "masking" the first 3 parts of the address, leaving only the last. The part we mask out is known as the "network prefix" and the part we leave is known as the "host part". What about our first example with 10.0.0.0/24 , why is that different? We'll come back to that in a moment. First, we need to get into a bit more detail about how masks work and why /24 means what it does.
Bitwise Operations in Subnet Masking
If we go back to what an IP address represents when in binary form:
We can see that it is made up of 4 groups of 8 bits. Each of these groups is also known as an "octet". An alternative to CIDR notation for masking is simply providing a subnet mask in IP notation as follows:
Here both A and B represent the same information. To see what this is doing, we can convert into binary notation:
Here we see that by performing a bitwise AND on the two numbers, we get the address prefix 10.0.0.0 , thus removing the host part from the address ( X.X.X.255 ). To get the host part, we first take the one's complement of the subnet mask:
Then the bitwise AND of the address:
This gives us 0.0.0.255 .
Back to CIDR Notation
So how does that tie into CIDR notation? How does 255.255.255.0 represent the same thing as /24 ? Let's go back to our octets. As we know, we have 4 octets. If we multiply that out, it gives us 4 * 8 = 32 bits. Now if we take our mask in IP notation and convert it to binary:
We see that the first 24 bits out of 32 are used for the mask. Therefore in CIDR notation, we simply show how many bits we are using for address prefix.
Usable IP Address Range
Within a subnet, not all addresses are usable. You almost always need to remove the first and last address in every subnet. This is because the first address is the network address or address prefix. In 10.0.0.0/24 that would be 10.0.0.0 . The last address is the broadcast address, in 10.0.0.0/24 that is 10.0.0.255 .
How to calculate a subnet?
Do you have to do this every time you want to calculate a subnet? No, thankfully. In general, you can either memorize a table of commonly used CIDR ranges like /24 , /22 etc or use a tool like sipcalc . sipcalc will give you all the information you need on a given subnet like so:
In conclusion
Hope this guide helped you with your understanding of IP addressing including masking and CIDR notations. Need more information? Here is a handy guide on IP Packets and reserving a new IP address from the Civo Dashboard or using Civo CLI .
Dan Weinberg
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In Civo we give you the option to create multiple private networks, but what's the point? There are a number of reasons why, but they all centre around isolation.
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Setting up all the DNS records your domain name to be hosted by Civo's DNS nameservers
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Configure IP Addresses and Unique Subnets for New Users
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Bias-Free Language
The documentation set for this product strives to use bias-free language. For the purposes of this documentation set, bias-free is defined as language that does not imply discrimination based on age, disability, gender, racial identity, ethnic identity, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, and intersectionality. Exceptions may be present in the documentation due to language that is hardcoded in the user interfaces of the product software, language used based on RFP documentation, or language that is used by a referenced third-party product. Learn more about how Cisco is using Inclusive Language.
Introduction
This document describes basic information needed to configure your router, such as how addresses are broken down and how subnetting works.
Prerequisites
Requirements.
Cisco recommends that you have a basic understanding of binary and decimal numbers.
Components Used
This document is not restricted to specific software and hardware versions.
The information in this document was created from the devices in a specific lab environment. All of the devices used in this document started with a cleared (default) configuration. If your network is live, ensure that you understand the potential impact of any command.
Additional Information
If definitions are helpful to you, use these vocabulary terms to get you started:
Address - The unique number ID assigned to one host or interface in a network.
Subnet - A portion of a network that shares a particular subnet address.
Subnet mask - A 32-bit combination used to describe which portion of an address refers to the subnet and which part refers to the host.
Interface - A network connection.
If you have already received your legitimate address(es) from the Internet Network Information Center (InterNIC), you are ready to begin. If you do not plan to connect to the Internet, Cisco strongly suggests that you use reserved addresses from RFC 1918 .
Learn how to assign each interface on the router an IP address with a unique subnet. There are examples included to help tie everything together.
Understand IP Addresses
An IP address is an address used in order to uniquely identify a device on an IP network. The address is made up of 32 binary bits, which can be divisible into a network portion and host portion with the help of a subnet mask. The 32 binary bits are broken into four octets (1 octet = 8 bits). Each octet is converted to decimal and separated by a period (dot). For this reason, an IP address is said to be expressed in dotted decimal format (for example, 172.16.81.100). The value in each octet ranges from 0 to 255 decimal, or 00000000 - 11111111 binary.
Here is how binary octets convert to decimal: The right most bit, or least significant bit, of an octet holds a value of 2 0 . The bit just to the left of that holds a value of 2 1 . This continues until the left-most bit, or most significant bit, which holds a value of 2 7 . So if all binary bits are a one, the decimal equivalent would be 255 as shown here:
Here is a sample octet conversion when not all of the bits are set to 1.
And this sample shows an IP address represented in both binary and decimal.
These octets are broken down to provide an addressing scheme that can accommodate large and small networks. There are five different classes of networks, A to E. This document focuses on classes A to C, since classes D and E are reserved and discussion of them is beyond the scope of this document.
Note : Also note that the terms "Class A, Class B" and so on are used in this document in order to help facilitate the understanding of IP addressing and subnetting. These terms are rarely used in the industry anymore because of the introduction of classless interdomain routing (CIDR).
Given an IP address, its class can be determined from the three high-order bits (the three left-most bits in the first octet). Figure 1 shows the significance in the three high order bits and the range of addresses that fall into each class. For informational purposes, Class D and Class E addresses are also shown.
In a Class A address, the first octet is the network portion, so the Class A example in Figure 1 has a major network address of 1.0.0.x - 127.255.255.x (where x can go from 0 to 255). Octets 2, 3, and 4 (the next 24 bits) are for the network manager to divide into subnets and hosts as he/she sees fit. Class A addresses are used for networks that have more than 65,536 hosts (actually, up to 16777214 hosts!).
In a Class B address, the first two octets are the network portion, so the Class B example in Figure 1 has a major network address of 128.0.0.x - 191.255.255.x. Octets 3 and 4 (16 bits) are for local subnets and hosts. Class B addresses are used for networks that have between 256 and 65534 hosts.
In a Class C address, the first three octets are the network portion. The Class C example in Figure 1 has a major network address of 192.0.0.x - 223.255.255.x. Octet 4 (8 bits) is for local subnets and hosts - perfect for networks with less than 254 hosts.
Network Masks
A network mask helps you know which portion of the address identifies the network and which portion of the address identifies the node. Class A, B, and C networks have default masks, also known as natural masks, as shown here:
An IP address on a Class A network that has not been subnetted would have an address/mask pair similar to: 10.20.15.1 255.0.0.0. In order to see how the mask helps you identify the network and node parts of the address, convert the address and mask to binary numbers.
Once you have the address and the mask represented in binary, then identification of the network and host ID is easier. Any address bits which have corresponding mask bits set to 1 represent the network ID. Any address bits that have corresponding mask bits set to 0 represent the node ID.
Understand Subnetting
Subnetting allows you to create multiple logical networks that exist within a single Class A, B, or C network. If you do not subnet, you are only able to use one network from your Class A, B, or C network, which is unrealistic.
Each data link on a network must have a unique network ID, and every node on that link is a member of the same network. If you break a major network (Class A, B, or C) into smaller subnetworks, it allows you to create a network of interconnecting subnetworks. Each data link on this network would then have a unique network/subnetwork ID. Any device, or gateway, that connects n networks/subnetworks has n distinct IP addresses, one for each network / subnetwork that it interconnects.
In order to subnet a network, extend the natural mask with some of the bits from the host ID portion of the address in order to create a subnetwork ID. For example, given a Class C network of 192.168.5.0 which has a natural mask of 255.255.255.0, you can create subnets in this manner:
By extending the mask to be 255.255.255.224, you have taken three bits (indicated by "sub") from the original host portion of the address and used them to make subnets. With these three bits, it is possible to create eight subnets. With the other five host ID bits, each subnet can have up to 32 host addresses, 30 of which can actually be assigned to a device since host ids of all zeros or all ones are not allowed (it is very important to remember this). So, with this in mind, these subnets have been created.
Note : There are two ways to denote these masks. First, since you use three bits more than the "natural" Class C mask, you can denote these addresses as a 3-bit subnet mask. Or, secondly, the mask of 255.255.255.224 can also be denoted as /27 as there are 27 bits that are set in the mask. This second method is used with CIDR . With this method, one of these networks can be described with the notation prefix/length. For example, 192.168.5.32/27 denotes the network 192.168.5.32 255.255.255.224. When appropriate, the prefix/length notation is used to denote the mask throughout the rest of this document.
The network subnetting scheme in this section allows for eight subnets, and the network can appear as:
Notice that each of the routers in Figure 2 is attached to four subnetworks, one subnetwork is common to both routers. Also, each router has an IP address for each subnetwork to which it is attached. Each subnetwork could potentially support up to 30 host addresses.
This brings up an interesting point. The more host bits you use for a subnet mask, the more subnets you have available. However, the more subnets available, the less host addresses available per subnet. For example, a Class C network of 192.168.5.0 and a mask of 255.255.255.224 (/27) allows you to have eight subnets, each with 32 host addresses (30 of which could be assigned to devices). If you use a mask of 255.255.255.240 (/28), the breakdown is:
Since you now have four bits to make subnets with, you only have four bits left for host addresses. So in this case you can have up to 16 subnets, each of which can have up to 16 host addresses (14 of which can be assigned to devices).
Look at how a Class B network can be subnetted. If you have network 172.16.0.0, then you know that its natural mask is 255.255.0.0 or 172.16.0.0/16. Extending the mask to anything beyond 255.255.0.0 means you are subnetting. You can quickly see that you have the ability to create a lot more subnets than with the Class C network. If you use a mask of 255.255.248.0 (/21), how many subnets and hosts per subnet does this allow for?
You use five bits from the original host bits for subnets. This allows you to have 32 subnets (2 5 ). When the five bits for subnetting are used, you are left with 11 bits for host addresses. This allows each subnet so have 2048 host addresses (2 11 ), 2046 of which could be assigned to devices.
Note : In the past, there were limitations to the use of a subnet 0 (all subnet bits are set to zero) and all ones subnet (all subnet bits set to one). Some devices would not allow the use of these subnets. Cisco Systems devices allow the use of these subnets when the ip subnet-zero command is configured.
Sample Exercise 1
Now that you understand subnetting, put this knowledge to use. In this example, you are given two address / mask combinations, written with the prefix/length notation, which have been assigned to two devices. Your task is to determine if these devices are on the same subnet or different subnets. You can use the address and mask of each device in order to determine to which subnet each address belongs.
Determine the Subnet for DeviceA:
Look at the address bits that have a corresponding mask bit set to one and set all the other address bits to zero (this is equivalent to when you perform a logical "AND" between the mask and address), shows you to which subnet this address belongs. In this case, Device A belongs to subnet 172.16.16.0.
Determine the Subnet for DeviceB:
From these determinations, Device A and Device B have addresses that are part of the same subnet.
Sample Exercise 2
Given the Class C network of 192.168.5.0/24, subnet the network to create the network in Figure 3 with the host requirements shown.
As you look at the network shown in Figure 3 , you can see that you are required to create five subnets. The largest subnet must support 28 host addresses. Is this possible with a Class C network? And if so, then how?
In order to start, look at the subnet requirement. In order to create the five needed subnets, you would need to use three bits from the Class C host bits. Two bits would only allow you four subnets (2 2 ).
Since you need three subnet bits, that leaves you with five bits for the host portion of the address. How many hosts does this support? 2 5 = 32 (30 usable). This meets the requirement.
Therefore, you have determined that it is possible to create this network with a Class C network. An example of how you can assign the subnetworks is:
VLSM Example
In all of the previous examples of subnetting, notice that the same subnet mask was applied for all the subnets. This means that each subnet has the same number of available host addresses. You can need this in some cases, but, in most cases when there is the same subnet mask for all subnets, it wastes address space. For example, in the Sample Exercise 2 section, a class C network was split into eight equal-size subnets; however, each subnet did not utilize all available host addresses, which results in wasted address space. Figure 4 illustrates this wasted address space.
Figure 4 illustrates that of the subnets that are used, NetA, NetC, and NetD have a lot of unused host address space. It is possible that this was a deliberate design accounting for future growth, but in many cases, this is just wasted address space due to the fact that the same subnet mask is used for all the subnets.
Variable Length Subnet Masks (VLSM) allows you to use different masks for each subnet, thereby they use address space efficiently.
Given the same network and requirements as in Sample Exercise 2 develop a subnetting scheme with the use of VLSM, given:
Determine what mask allows the required number of hosts.
The easiest way to assign the subnets is to assign the largest first. For example, you can assign in this manner:
This can be graphically represented as shown in Figure 5:
Figure 5 illustrates how VLSM helped save more than half of the address space.
Classless Interdomain Routing (CIDR) was introduced in order to improve both address space utilization and routing scalability in the Internet. It was needed because of the rapid growth of the Internet and growth of the IP routing tables held in the Internet routers.
CIDR moves away from the traditional IP classes (Class A, Class B, Class C, and so on). In CIDR , an IP network is represented by a prefix, which is an IP address and some indication of the length of the mask. Length means the number of left-most contiguous mask bits that are set to one. So, network 172.16.0.0 255.255.0.0 can be represented as 172.16.0.0/16. CIDR also depicts a more hierarchical Internet architecture, where each domain takes its IP addresses from a higher level. This allows for the summarization of the domains to be done at the higher level. For example, if an ISP owns network 172.16.0.0/16, then the ISP can offer 172.16.1.0/24, 172.16.2.0/24, and so on to customers. Yet, when advertising to other providers, the ISP only needs to advertise 172.16.0.0/16.
For more information on CIDR, see RFC 1518 and RFC 1519 .
Special Subnets
31-bit subnets.
A 30-bit subnet mask allows for four IPv4 addresses: two host addresses, one all-zeros network, and one all-ones broadcast address. A point-to-point link can only have two host addresses. There is no real need to have the broadcast and all-zeros addresses with point-to-point links. A 31-bit subnet mask allows for exactly two host addresses, and eliminates the broadcast and all-zeros addresses, thus it conserves the use of IP addresses to the minimum for point-to-point links.
Refer to RFC 3021 - Using 31-Bit Prefixes on IPv4 Point-to-Point Links.
The mask is 255.255.255.254 or /31.
The /31 subnet can be used on true point-to-point links, such as serial or POS interfaces. However, they can also be used on broadcast interface types like ethernet interfaces. If that is the case, make sure there are only two IPv4 addresses needed on that ethernet segment.
192.168.1.0 and 192.168.1.1 are on the subnet 192.168.1.0/31.
The warning is printed because gigabitEthernet is a broadcast segment.
32-bit Subnets
A subnet mask of 255.255.255.255 (a /32 subnet) describes a subnet with only one IPv4 host address. These subnets cannot be used to assign address to network links, because they always need more than one address per link. The use of /32 is strictly reserved for use on links that can have only one address. The example for Cisco routers is the loopback interface. These interfaces are internal interfaces and do not connect to other devices. As such, they can have a /32 subnet.
Sample Configuration
Routers A and B are connected via serial interface.
Host/Subnet Quantities Table
Related information.
- IP Routing Protocols Technology Support
- Subnet Zero and the All-Ones Subnet
- Host and Subnet Quantities
- Technical Support & Documentation - Cisco Systems
Revision History
Contributed by Cisco Engineers
- Julio Jiminez TAC Project Manager
- Freda Schmitt ICD Technical Writer
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ISSC 341 AMU Networking IP Addressing Table and Subnetting Strategy Essay
Question description.
I’m working on a networking question and need support to help me learn.
Below are the instructions and attached is the document the question is referring to as the physical aspect of the network. The question is built around the physical aspect of the attached document and the answer should be done on a separate Word Document.
Instructions.
Assignment Instructions:
- You have completed building out the physical aspect of your network in the new ACME, Inc. facility. Now let’s get it up and running.
- Accounts Receivables
- Accounts Payables
- Human Resources
- Outside Sales
- Network Switch Configurations
- IP Addressing table and assignments/Subnetting strategy
- Routing Tables (3 minimum routes/remember this is a remote office)
- Remember to justify your choices
- All of this should be contained in a Word document
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ISSC 341 AMU Networking IP Addressing Table and Subnetting Strategy Essay
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Computer Science
American Military University
Description
Below are the instructions and attached is the document the question is referring to as the physical aspect of the network. the question is built around the physical aspect of the attached document and the answer should be done on a separate word document., instructions.
Assignment Instructions:
- You have completed building out the physical aspect of your network in the new ACME, Inc. facility. Now let's get it up and running.
- Accounts Receivables
- Accounts Payables
- Human Resources
- Outside Sales
- Network Switch Configurations
- IP Addressing table and assignments/Subnetting strategy
- Routing Tables (3 minimum routes/remember this is a remote office)
- Remember to justify your choices
- All of this should be contained in a Word document
Unformatted Attachment Preview
Explanation & Answer
Hello, I attached the final answer and the plagiarism report. Please checl and let me know if you need anything changed. Thank you! Running Head: INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING 1 Introduction to Networking Professor Institution Date “INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING” Introduction to Networking The network diagrams 2 “INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING” 192.168.1.0/2 3 255.255.255.0 4 Department Hosts/ IP’s Subnet Mask 25 192.168.1.0/27 255.255.255.224 32 25 192.168.1.32/27 255.255.255.224 32 25 192.168.1.64/27 255.255.255.224 32 Legal 25 192.168.1.96/27 255.255.255.224 32 Outside sales 25 192.168.1.128/27 255.255.255.224 32 R1-R2 2 192.168.1.160/27 255.255.255.252 4 R1-R3 2 192.168.1.164/27 255.255.255.252 4 R1-R4 2 192.168.1.168/27 255.255.255.252 4 Connections Accounts receivables Accounts Payables Human Resource The core network configuration and justification Creation Vlan “Enable Configuring terminal Vlan 2 “INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING” Name AccReceivables Vlan 3 Name AccPayables Vlan 4 Name HR Vlan 5 Name Legal Vlan 6 Name Sales Exit Making the FastEthernet port to connect the Managed Access Switchers trunk to pass all the VLANs The interface fasterthernet0/0 Switchport trunk encapsulation dot1q Switchport mode trunk The interface fasterthernet0/1 Switchport trunk encapsulation dot1q Switchport mode trunk 4 “INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING” Interface fasterthernet0/2 Switchport trunk encapsulation dot1q Switchport mode trunk Assign an IP address to the VLAN interface Interface VLAN 1 IP address 192.168.1.10 255.255.255.0 No shutdown Ip default gateway 192.168.1.1 Interface VLAN 2 Ip address 192.168.2.10 255.255.255.0 No shutdown Ip default gateway 192.168.2.1 Interface VLAN 3 Ip address 192.168.3.10 255.255.255.0 No shutdown 5 “INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING” Ip default gateway 192.168.3.1” Interface VLAN 3 Interface VLAN 4 “Ip address 192.168.1.10 255.255.255.0 No shutdown Ip default gateway 192.168.4.1 Interface VLAN 5 Ip address 192.168.5.10 255.255.255.0 No shutdown Ip default gateway 192.168.5.1 Interface VLAN 6 Ip addess 192.168.6.10 255.255.255.0 No shut...
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IP Addressing Subnetting & Routing Assignment
IP Addressing Subnetting & Routing
Assignment Instructions: You have completed building out the physical aspect of your network in the new ACME, Inc. facility. Now lets get it up and running. You will need to provide a plan for how to bring the network online. o Note: There are 5 departments moving into the facility ? Accounts Receivables ? Accounts Payables ? Human Resources ? Legal ? Outside Sales Your plan should include the following, this is not the entire list. o Network Switch Configurations o IP Addressing table and assignments/Subnetting strategy o Routing Tables (3 minimum routes/remember this is a remote office) o Remember to justify your choices All of this should be contained in a Word document
solved : IP Addressing Subnetting & Routing Assignment1
IP Addressing Subnetting & Routing
Assignment Instructions: You have completed building out the physical aspect of your network in the new ACME, Inc. facility. Now lets get it up and running. You will need to provide a plan for how to bring the network online. o Note: There are 5 departments moving into the facility ? Accounts Receivables ? Accounts Payables ? Human Resources ? Legal ? Outside Sales Your plan should include the following, this is not the entire list. o Network Switch Configurations o IP Addressing table and assignments/Subnetting strategy o Routing Tables (3 minimum routes/remember this is a remote office) o Remember to justify your choices All of this should be contained in a Word document1
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ISSC 341 AMU Networking IP Addressing Table and Subnetting Strategy Essay
Computer Science,issc 341
Question Description
I’m working on a networking question and need support to help me learn.
Below are the instructions and attached is the document the question is referring to as the physical aspect of the network. The question is built around the physical aspect of the attached document and the answer should be done on a separate Word Document.
Instructions.
Assignment Instructions:
- You have completed building out the physical aspect of your network in the new ACME, Inc. facility. Now let’s get it up and running.
- Accounts Receivables
- Accounts Payables
- Human Resources
- Outside Sales
- Network Switch Configurations
- IP Addressing table and assignments/Subnetting strategy
- Routing Tables (3 minimum routes/remember this is a remote office)
- Remember to justify your choices
- All of this should be contained in a Word document
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IP Addressing Subnetting & Routing
Assignment Instructions:
• You have completed building out the physical aspect of your network in the new ACME, Inc. facility. Now let’s get it up and running.
• You will need to provide a plan for how to bring the network online.
o Note: There are 5 departments moving into the facility
Accounts Receivables
Accounts Payables
Human Resources
Outside Sales
• Your plan should include the following, this is not the entire list.
o Network Switch Configurations
o IP Addressing table and assignments/Subnetting strategy
o Routing Tables (3 minimum routes/remember this is a remote office)
o Remember to justify your choices
• All of this should be contained in a Word document
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IMAGES
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COMMENTS
Subnet or Subnetwork--A smaller network created by dividing a larger network into equal parts. TCP/IP--Used broadly, the set of protocols, standards, and utilities commonly used on the Internet and large networks. Wide area network (WAN)--A large network that is a collection of smaller networks separated by routers.
Table 1. IPv4 address assignment options for receiver profile connections; Option Description; Fixed IP address: You define the single IP address that is to be given to remote users when they dial in. This is a host only IP address (Subnet mask is 255.255.255.255) and is only for single connection receiver profiles. Address Pool
IP Addressing & subnetting strategy. 1. . BY Mustafa Salam Hayder Ayad Dawood Ali Adil Saeid. 2. The Internet Protocol (IP) The Internet Protocol is the corner-stone of the TCP/IP architecture. All computers in the Internet understand IP. The main tasks of IP are: The addressing of the computers, and the fragmentation of packets.
The internet's address assignment strategy is known as Classless Interdomain Routing ... As with subnet addressing, the 32-bit IP address is divided into two parts and again has the dotted-decimal form a.d.c.d/x, ... This considerably reduces the size of the forwarding table in these routers, since a single entry of the form a.b.c.d/x will be ...
Each of these groups is also known as an "octet". An alternative to CIDR notation for masking is simply providing a subnet mask in IP notation as follows: A. 10...255/24 B. Address: 10.0.0.255 Subnet Mask 255.255.255.. Here both A and B represent the same information.
Understand IP Addresses. An IP address is an address used in order to uniquely identify a device on an IP network. The address is made up of 32 binary bits, which can be divisible into a network portion and host portion with the help of a subnet mask. The 32 binary bits are broken into four octets (1 octet = 8 bits).
Assignment Instructions: You have completed building out the physical aspect of your network in the new ACME, Inc. facility. Now let's get it up and running. You will need to provide a plan for how to bring the network online. Note: There are 5 departments moving into the facility Accounts Receivables; Accounts Payables; Human Resources; Legal
capricorn compatibility ip addressing table and assignments subnetting strategy. Blog; About; Tours; Contact
Below are the instructions and attached is the document the question is referring to as the physical aspect of the network. The question is built around the physical aspect of the attached document and the answer should be done on a separate Word Document. InstructionsAssignment Instructions: You have completed building out the physical aspect of your network in the new ACME, Inc. facility ...
ISSC 341 AMU Networking IP Addressing Table and Subnetting Strategy Essay. I'm working on a networking question and need support to help me learn. Below are the instructions and attached is the document the question is referring to as the physical aspect of the network.
Octet boundaries were given when talking about IP assignments. A custom subnet mask borrows bits from the host portion of the address to create a subnetwork address between the network and host portions of an IP address. IP Addressing: IPv4 Addressing Configuration Guide, Cisco ...
IP Address Format and Table. IP address is a short form of "Internet Protocol Address." It is a unique number provided to every device connected to the internet network, such as Android phone, laptop, Mac, etc. An IP address is represented in an integer number separated by a dot (.), for example, 192.167.12.46.
IP Addressing Subnetting & Routing. Assignment Instructions: You have completed building out the physical aspect of your network in the new ACME, Inc. facility. Now lets get it up and running. You will need to provide a plan for how to bring the network online. o Note: There are 5 departments moving into the facility? Accounts Receivables ...
IP Addressing Subnetting & Routing. Assignment Instructions: You have completed building out the physical aspect of your network in the new ACME, Inc. facility. Now lets get it up and running. You will need to provide a plan for how to bring the network online. o Note: There are 5 departments moving into the facility? Accounts Receivables ...
Assignment Instructions: You have completed building out the physical aspect of your network in the new ACME, Inc. facility. Now let's get it up and running.
IP Addressing Subnetting & Routing . Assignment Instructions: • You have completed building out the physical aspect of your network in the new ACME, Inc. facility. Now let's get it up and running. • You will need to provide a plan for how to bring the network online. o Note: There are 5 departments moving into the facility Accounts Receivables Accounts Payables
Instructions Assignment Instructions: You have completed building out the physical aspect of your network in the new ACME, Inc. facility. Now let's get it up and running. ( This is for a network in a star topology with two 48-port switches as the wired together center "hub") You will need to provide a plan for how to bring the network online.